Less MDMA, more cocaine and ketamine: drug use in Europe is changing

A new pan-European study based on wastewater analysis attempts to decipher the evolution of trends in drug use on the continent. Conducted by the European Union Drugs Agency in collaboration with the SCORE Group, the study covers 115 cities in 25 countries, and is the most comprehensive dataset of its kind to date.

By analyzing chemical residues in urban wastewater, researchers can estimate substance consumption trends at population level. Although this method has its limitations, it offers a rare, near-real-time insight into changing consumption habits, revealing a Europe where cocaine and ketamine on the rise, while MDMA consumption declines and that of cannabis remains stable.

A continent-wide trend: less MDMA, more stimulants and dissociatives

One of the most striking findings is the sharp drop in traces of MDMA across Europe. According to the study, levels fell by nearly 16% between 2024 and 2025, the steepest decline since the pandemic-related closure of nightlife venues in 2020.

At the same time, other substances are gaining ground. Detections of ketamine jumped by around 41% in just one year, while the cocaine continued its upward trajectory, with an increase of 22% over the previous year. This marks almost a decade of steady growth for cocaine, with a turning point identified around 2016.

As Dr Lorraine Nolan, EUDA's Executive Director, explained: « European wastewater tells the story of a drug consumption phenomenon that is widespread, varied and constantly evolving. »

This development suggests a transformation in recreational habits, with stimulants and dissociative substances increasingly replacing traditional recreational drugs such as MDMA in certain regions.

Geographical disparities across Europe

The study reveals strong regional differences in drug use patterns. Western and Southern Europe continues to show the highest concentrations of cocaine, particularly in countries such as Spain, the Netherlands and Belgium.

Similarly, the ketamine consumption is most marked in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, with large urban centers such as Berlin and Amsterdam recording particularly high levels.

On the other hand, the’Eastern Europe generally reports lower concentrations of these substances, although some regions are experiencing gradual increases, notably in cocaine and methamphetamine consumption.

Consumption of’amphetamines remains more widespread in northern Europe, including Scandinavia, while the methamphetamine, historically concentrated in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, is now expanding into new markets such as Germany, Spain and Turkey.

Cannabis: stability in a changing market

In the midst of these fluctuations, the cannabis stands out for its relative stability. Wastewater analysis shows no major change in overall consumption levels between 2024 and 2025, confirming its position as the most widely consumed illicit substance in Europe.

Residues of THC-COOH, a metabolite used to estimate cannabis consumption, were detected in all the cities studied. The highest concentrations were found in Western and Central Europe, particularly in the Netherlands, Germany and Slovenia.

Unlike other substances, cannabis use seems to be evenly distributed throughout the week, with minimal variations between weekdays and weekends. This contrasts sharply with drugs such as cocaine and MDMA, which show clear peaks linked to nightlife and recreational contexts.

This stable trend reflects a more integrated and habitual consumption of cannabis, rather than purely recreational consumption linked to specific social occasions.

Weekend peaks and recreational consumption patterns

The temporal dimension of the study offers further insight into how substances are consumed. Over 75% of the cities analyzed showed higher concentrations of cocaine and MDMA in wastewater at weekends, indicating a close link with nightlife and recreational activities.

La ketamine follows a similar trend, though slightly less pronounced, with around half of all cities reporting weekend peaks.

On the other hand, the cannabis, amphetamine and methamphetamine show a more constant presence throughout the week, suggesting different consumption contexts, potentially including daily or functional consumption.

These trends reinforce the idea that not all substances play the same social or psychological roles, with some linked to specific moments of release and others forming part of daily routines.

Development of detection and emerging trends

Another key finding of the report is the’expansion of the presence of certain substances. While methamphetamine remains at a relatively low level overall, it is now being detected in more countries than ever before, indicating a slow geographical expansion.

At the same time, the study revealed that large cities tend to have higher drug concentrations than smaller ones, particularly for cocaine and MDMA. This urban concentration highlights the role of metropolitan areas as poles of supply and demand.

Interestingly, the data also reveal that drug trends are not always consistent within national borders. Significant differences can exist between cities in the same country, underlining the importance of local dynamics.

Understanding the limits of wastewater epidemiology

Despite its advantages, wastewater analysis has major limitations. This method cannot be used to determine the number of people using a substance, the frequency of consumption, nor the purity of the drugs concerned.

Some substances, such as heroin, are also difficult to measure due to the instability of their biomarkers in wastewater.

Results can also be influenced by external factors, such as demographic fluctuations in urban areas and variations in wastewater networks.

Nevertheless, sewage-based epidemiology remains one of the most effective tools for monitoring drug trends on a large scale. Researchers are already working to refine the methodology, notably by integrating mobile data to better estimate population size in real time.

Europe's changing drug landscape

On the whole, these results paint a picture of a a dynamic and fast-changing drug market in Europe. The decline of MDMA, combined with the increase in cocaine and ketamine consumption, suggests a shift in consumer preferences and a potential change in supply dynamics.

At the same time, the stability of cannabis use highlights its unique status within the wider drug landscape, a substance whose consumption patterns seem less volatile and more rooted in everyday life.

While wastewater analysis can't answer every question, it does offer an essential prism for understanding these transformations. As European policies and markets continue to evolve, this data will remain indispensable for tracking what people consume across the continent.